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Descubre un mundo infinito de historias

Escucha y lee

Peter Attia

Expert insight on health, performance, longevity, critical thinking, and pursuing excellence. Dr. Peter Attia (Stanford/Hopkins/NIH-trained MD) talks with leaders in their fields.

The Peter Attia Drive

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Sally Greenwald is an OB-GYN who specializes in women's sexual health from a hormonal and physiologic perspective, with expertise spanning desire, arousal, pelvic floor function, contraception, and menopause care. In this episode, she explains why sexual health is a vital component of overall well-being, exploring topics such as the drivers of desire, the anatomy of sexual function, myths and realities around orgasm, and the role of hormones in perimenopause and menopause. She also covers vaginal and pelvic health, pain with sex, evidence-based therapies for low desire and arousal, how contraception and medications can affect sexual function, and practical strategies for enhancing sexual satisfaction and maintaining intimacy across life stages. This episode offers a comprehensive, evidence-based discussion with immediate real-world relevance for women as well as for men who want to better understand their partners.
 
We discuss:
 
 • How sexual health influences physical health, emotional well-being, and relationships [3:15];
 • Understanding the physiology of the female orgasm, sexual comfort and satisfaction, and the disparity between men and women [12:45];
 • Foreplay, the science of desire, and methods to help women cultivate arousal and connection [19:00];
 • The physiology and sources of female lubrication, the role of clitoral nerve anatomy in pleasure, and the use of lubricants and vibrators to enhance comfort and sexual health [23:45];
 • Understanding female anatomy and what is needed for orgasm [31:15];
 • Understanding sexual desire, how to cultivate it, the role of hormones, and testosterone therapy in women [41:15];
 • Personalizing perimenopause care: how desire for ovulation guides the choice between contraception and menopausal hormone therapy [49:30];
 • Considerations for choosing contraceptives and hormonal therapies during perimenopause [59:45];
 • Factors negatively affecting desire, and why female libido persists with age and fluctuates across the menstrual cycle [1:11:00];
 • How sexual trauma and physical pain can affect sexual health, and evidence-based strategies for recovery [1:15:15];
 • Vaginal care routine: lubricants, moisturizers, topical hormones, and other approaches for vaginal health [1:19:15];
 • Tips for sexually satisfying your female partner [1:25:45];
 • The pharmacology of arousal: various treatments for low sexual desire in women [1:30:30];
 • Sex during and after pregnancy: impact on arousal, safety of sex, and how to manage postpartum recovery and pain [1:37:45];
 • How Sally would redesign sex education [1:42:15];
 • Sally's optimism about a new era in women's sexual health [1:49:00]; and
 • More.
 
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#371 – Women's sexual health: desire, arousal, and orgasms, navigating perimenopause, and enhancing satisfaction | Sally Greenwald, M.D., M.P.H.

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In this special episode, Peter provides a comprehensive introduction to longevity, perfect for newcomers or those looking to refresh their knowledge. He lays out the foundational concepts of lifespan, healthspan, and the marginal decade. Additionally, Peter discusses the four main causes of death and their prevention, as well as detailing the five key strategies in his longevity toolkit to improve lifespan and healthspan. Detailed show notes provide links for deeper exploration of these topics, making it an ideal starting point for anyone interested in understanding and improving their longevity.
 
We discuss:
 
 • Key points about starting exercise as an older adult [2:45];
 • Overview of episode topics and structure [1:45];
 • How Peter defines longevity [3:45];
 • Why healthspan is a crucial component of longevity [11:15];
 • The evolution of medicine from medicine 1.0 to 2.0, and the emergence of medicine 3.0 [15:30];
 • Overview of atherosclerotic diseases: the 3 pathways of ASCVD, preventative measures, and the impact of metabolic health [26:00];
 • Cancer: genetic and environmental factors, treatment options, and the importance of early and aggressive screening [33:15];
 • Neurodegenerative diseases: causes, prevention, and the role of genetics and metabolic health [39:30];
 • The spectrum of metabolic diseases [43:15];
 • Why it's never too late to start thinking about longevity [44:15];
 • The 5 components of the longevity toolkit [46:30];
 • Peter's framework for exercise—The Centenarian Decathlon [47:45];
 • Peter's nutritional framework: energy balance, protein intake, and more [58:45];
 • Sleep: the vital role of sleep in longevity, and how to improve sleep habits [1:08:30];
 • Drugs and supplements: Peter's framework for thinking about drugs and supplements as tools for enhancing longevity [1:13:30];
 • Why emotional health is a key component of longevity [1:17:00];
 • Advice for newcomers on where to start on their longevity journey [1:19:30]; and
 • More.
 
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Longevity 101: a foundational guide to Peter's frameworks for longevity, and understanding CVD, cancer, neurodegenerative disease, nutrition, exercise, sleep, and more (re-broadcast)

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In this "Ask Me Anything" (AMA) episode, Peter revisits the "proven, promising, fuzzy, noise, nonsense" scale and applies it to a variety of popular topics. He begins with a refresher on what each category represents before classifying a range of interventions based on the strength of their supporting evidence. The conversation spans three main areas: drugs for geroprotection (including GLP-1 receptor agonists, SGLT2 inhibitors, methylene blue, and telomere-lengthening supplements), the use of low-dose aspirin for cardiovascular disease prevention, and strategies to improve muscle mass through optimal protein intake and follistatin gene therapy. This episode provides a clear, evidence-based overview for listeners seeking to understand where these popular health and longevity interventions stand on the spectrum of scientific credibility.
 
If you're not a subscriber and are listening on a podcast player, you'll only be able to hear a preview of the AMA. If you're a subscriber, you can now listen to this full episode on your private RSS feed or our website at the AMA #76 show notes page. If you are not a subscriber, you can learn more about the subscriber benefits here.
 
We discuss:
 
 • A scale for evaluating scientific claims: proven, promising, fuzzy, noise, or nonsense [1:30];
 • Strong convictions, loosely held: the mindset that separates great scientists from the rest [7:30];
 • GLP-1 receptor agonists: are there benefits beyond improving metabolic health and promoting weight loss? [12:45];
 • GLP-1 drugs and the brain: exploring the potential cognitive benefits [18:45];
 • GLP-1 drugs and lifespan: examining the evidence for potential geroprotective effects [23:00];
 • Rapamycin and geroprotection: why it remains in the "promising" category [25:45];
 • SGLT2 inhibitors and their potential geroprotective effect [27:30];
 • Methylene blue: examining the evidence of an anti-aging effect [34:45];
 • Methylene blue's potential neuroprotective effects: limited and inconsistent evidence in humans, and the challenges of dosing and safety [41:15];
 • Telomeres: what they are, how they relate to aging, and why telomere-lengthening supplements lack credible scientific evidence [43:45];
 • Does the idea of targeting telomere length to extend lifespan have scientific merit? [50:15];
 • Low-dose aspirin for cardiovascular disease prevention: weighing its clot-prevention benefits against bleeding risks across different populations [55:00];
 • Rethinking the protein RDA: why most people need twice the recommended amount for muscle health [1:00:45];
 • Debunking the protein–cancer myth: why higher protein intake doesn't promote tumor growth [1:06:15];
 • The biology of follistatin and myostatin, and why follistatin gene therapy has become an emerging topic of interest for muscle growth [1:13:15];
 • Follistatin gene therapy for muscle growth: state of the evidence in animals and humans, and the technical challenges and regulatory barriers [1:17:00];
 • Why injectable follistatin is theoretically possible but impractical for real-world use [1:23:15]; and
 • More.
 
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#370 - AMA #76: Peter evaluates longevity drugs, aspirin for CVD, and strategies to improve muscle mass — proven, promising, fuzzy, noise, or nonsense?

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Rhonda Patrick is a scientist, health educator, and host of the FoundMyFitness podcast whose work explores the intersection of nutrition, aging, and disease prevention. In this episode, Rhonda joins Peter for part two of his deep dive on protein, continuing last week's discussion with David Allison and expanding the conversation to include creatine supplementation and sauna use. She discusses why the current RDA for protein is insufficient, how much more is needed to maintain muscle mass and prevent frailty, how activity level and aging influence protein requirements through mechanisms such as anabolic resistance, and how to determine optimal protein intake. The conversation also covers creatine's proven effects on strength, endurance, and performance; its overlooked benefits for cognition and brain health; and the optimal dosing for different populations. Rhonda closes with the science behind sauna use, including its cardiovascular and cognitive benefits, the role of heat shock proteins, and practical guidance on temperature and duration.
 
We discuss:
 
 • Why the current protein RDA is too low, and why maintaining sufficient amino acid intake is vital for muscle preservation and health [3:30];
 • The case for raising the protein RDA by at least 50% [9:45];
 • Anabolic resistance: why inactivity—more than aging—blunts the body's response to protein, and how resistance training restores it [14:00];
 • How sarcopenia develops, the profound effect of frailty on quality of life, and why it's crucial to build and maintain muscle early [20:00];
 • Finding the optimal protein dose [25:00];
 • Why aiming higher is smarter: the case for targeting 2g of protein per kg of body weight in the real world [32:15];
 • Protein needs for pregnant women and growing adolescents [37:30];
 • Why higher protein intake is crucial when trying to lose fat while preserving or gaining muscle [39:45];
 • GLP-1 drugs: protein needs, muscle preservation, dosing strategies, evidence of broader health impacts, and more [43:45];
 • How overweight individuals should calculate protein needs based on target body weight [50:45];
 • Unpacking a misunderstood topic: the relationship between protein intake, mTOR activation, and longevity [52:00];
 • Why it's unclear whether rapamycin is geroprotective in humans, and how misinterpreted animal data have fueled misconceptions about protein or mTOR activation being harmful [1:00:45];
 • The unmatched longevity benefits of exercise, its synergy with higher protein intake, and
 • Peter's recommended protein intake [1:06:15];
 • How Rhonda became fascinated with creatine—a well-studied, safe, and effective supplement for improving exercise performance [1:09:00];
 • Creatine for the brain: how higher doses may enhance cognition under stress and support resilience against aging and disease [1:16:30];
 • Optimal creatine use: dosing for adults and teens, safe product selection, debunking kidney myths, and more [1:25:45];
 • Sauna: how deliberate heat exposure mimics exercise, boosts cardiovascular and brain health, and shows promise for improving mood and mental resilience [1:32:15];
 • The benefits of sauna for reducing risk of dementia, and why hotter may not be better [1:41:15];
 • The FoundMyFitness podcast [1:45:30]; and
 • More.
 
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#369 ‒ Rethinking protein needs for performance, muscle preservation, and longevity, and the mental and physical benefits of creatine supplementation and sauna use | Rhonda Patrick, Ph.D.

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David Allison is a world-renowned scientist and award-winning scientific writer who has spent more than two decades at the forefront of obesity research. In this episode, David joins for his third appearance on The Drive to bring clarity to one of the most contentious topics in modern nutrition—protein. He explores the historical pattern of demonizing macronutrients, the origins and limitations of the RDA for protein, and what the evidence really says about higher protein intake, muscle protein synthesis, and whether concerns about harm are supported by actual data. He also discusses the challenges of conducting rigorous nutrition studies, including the limits of epidemiology and crossover designs, as well as conflicts of interest in nutrition science and why transparency around data, methods, and logic matter more than funding sources. The episode closes with a discussion on processed and ultra-processed foods, the public health challenges of tackling obesity, and whether future solutions may depend more on drugs like GLP-1 agonists or broader societal changes. This is part one of a two-part deep dive on protein, setting the stage for next week's conversation with Rhonda Patrick.
 
We discuss:
 
 • The cyclical pattern of demonizing different macronutrients in nutrition and why protein has recently become the latest target of controversy [3:15];
 • The origin and limits of the protein RDA: from survival thresholds to modern optimization [6:30];
 • Trust vs. trustworthiness: why data, methods, and logic matter more than motives in science [13:30];
 • The challenges of nutrition science: methodological limits, emotional bias, and the path to honest progress [17:15];
 • Why the protein RDA is largely inadequate for most people, and the lack of human evidence that high protein intake is harmful [30:30];
 • Understanding the dose-response curve for muscle protein synthesis as protein intake increases [45:15];
 • Why nutrition trials are chronically underpowered due to weak economic incentives, and how this skews evidence quality and perceptions of conflict [48:15];
 • The limitations and biases of nutrition epidemiology, and the potential role of AI-assisted review to improve it [56:15];
 • The lack of compelling evidence of harm with higher protein intake, and why we should shift away from assuming danger [1:04:15];
 • Pragmatic targets for protein intake [1:09:30];
 • Defining processed and ultra-processed foods and whether they are inherently harmful [1:16:15];
 • The search for a guiding principle of what's healthy to eat: simple heuristics vs. judging foods by their molecular composition [1:25:00];
 • Why conventional public health interventions for obesity have largely failed [1:38:15];
 • Two ideas from David for addressing the metabolic health problem in society [1:42:30];
 • The potential of GLP-1 agonists to play a large role in public health [1:46:30]; and
 • More.
 
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#368 ‒ The protein debate: optimal intake, limitations of the RDA, whether high-protein intake is harmful, and how to think about processed foods | David Allison, Ph.D.

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In this special episode of The Drive, Peter addresses the recent headlines linking acetaminophen (Tylenol) use during pregnancy to autism in exposed children. Recognizing the confusion these claims have sparked among patients, listeners, and the broader public, Peter uses this episode to provide a framework for thinking critically about complex conditions and the research related to them. He highlights the dramatic rise in autism diagnoses over recent decades, noting that multifactorial conditions rarely have a single cause, and emphasizes the importance of resisting oversimplified explanations. Peter also stresses that humans are not naturally wired for scientific thinking, making disciplined frameworks like the Bradford Hill criteria essential for evaluating causality in epidemiology. Ultimately, he uses this framework to explore the evidence surrounding acetaminophen use during pregnancy and its potential link to autism.
 
We discuss:
 
 • Laying the groundwork for this discussion, the rise in autism rates, and the value in using frameworks [1:00];
 • The FDA pregnancy drug categories, where Tylenol falls within that framework, and a structured method for evaluating scientific evidence and causality [6:00];
 • What exactly are the claims being made about acetaminophen and autism? [13:45];
 • The increase in autism rates and why so many things are being linked to autism: the multiple comparisons problem [15:00];
 • Evaluating the review paper that triggered the recent concern over acetaminophen and autism [21:45];
 • Breaking down the largest studies on prenatal Tylenol exposure and autism: is there a causal link? [35:00];
 • Why observational studies can't prove causality, the role of confounding variables, and the importance of frameworks like the Bradford Hill criteria [43:30];
 • Applying the Bradford Hill criteria: testing the case for Tylenol and autism [45:45];
 • Putting it all together to answer the question: Does acetaminophen use during pregnancy increase the risk of autism? [56:15];
 • If autism risk is overwhelmingly genetic, what explains the dramatic rise in autism diagnoses? [59:15];
 • Other risk factors for autism: parental age, maternal health, environment, and where Tylenol fits in [1:09:15];
 • Medication use during pregnancy: balancing risks, benefits, and FDA categories [1:15:15];
 • Considerations for taking Tylenol during pregnancy [1:19:30];
 • Final thoughts: critical thinking, balanced risk assessment, and the importance of context when evaluating medications like Tylenol during pregnancy [1:22:30]; and
 • More.
 
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#367 - Tylenol, pregnancy, and autism: What recent studies show and how to interpret the data

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Joe Liemandt is a software entrepreneur turned education reformer who left Stanford in 1989 to found Trilogy, a highly profitable private software company, before pivoting to transforming K-12 learning. In this episode, Joe shares how he transitioned from leading a global software enterprise to becoming principal of Alpha School, where his focus is building a mastery-based, individualized education model that leverages AI as the missing infrastructure for large-scale change. He details the shortcomings of traditional K-12 education, explains how Alpha replaces conventional seat time with focused academics, and outlines the role of AI tutors and human coaches in helping students accelerate through material. Joe also discusses early results, the data-driven systems that track progress, and his ambitious plan to reach a billion children in the next 20 years by combining cutting-edge technology with proven learning science.
 
We discuss:
 
 • Joe's early interest in AI and the story of how he quit school to build Trilogy [4:45];
 • Joe's first encounter with Alpha School and how it sparked his journey into education innovation [8:15];
 • America's declining K-12 performance and the hidden power of mastering fundamentals [13:00];
 • How traditional time-based grade progression undermines later learning, and how mastery-focused instruction can transform student achievement [20:30];
 • Motivation as the key to high-level learning: how Alpha School fosters motivation with its "Timeback" model and leverages AI to accelerate learning [28:45];
 • Core principles of learning: how high standards, mastery-based instruction, and supportive struggle foster both academic excellence and personal growth [35:45];
 • Breaking down self-imposed limitations with foundational skills, defined time requirements, and a mastery model [41:15];
 • Using short-term extrinsic rewards to help students overcome limiting beliefs and ignite lasting intrinsic motivation [46:45];
 • $100 for 100: a simple but powerful incentive system that helps students fill academic gaps and master fundamentals [53:45];
 • How AI is the pivotal technology that can finally allow proven learning science to scale and unlock unprecedented student potential [57:45];
 • The emergence of generative AI that catalyzed Joe's billion-dollar investment in education [1:09:45];
 • The path and obstacles to integrating Alpha's AI-powered model into mainstream education [1:12:00];
 • Reimagining schooling from the ground up across five key dimensions [1:22:30];
 • The potential of this educational approach to reduce inequality in academic success [1:30:00];
 • Why the biggest challenge to scaling Alpha's AI-driven education is cultural adoption and systemic redesign [1:34:00];
 • Peter's daughter's experience at Alpha School [1:38:30];
 • Alpha School's expansion plans and need for people and resources for maximum impact [1:42:30]; and
 • More.
 
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#366 ‒ Transforming education with AI and an individualized, mastery-based education model | Joe Liemandt

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In this special episode of The Drive, Peter hosts a strength and conditioning roundtable with three experts in the field—Gabrielle Lyon, Jeff Cavaliere, and Mike Boyle. Together they explore why maintaining muscle mass, strength, and power is essential for healthspan and longevity, and examine how resistance training supports metabolic resilience and injury prevention across the lifespan. The conversation covers practical strategies for getting started and staying consistent, the importance of a protein-centered diet tailored to age and activity level, and approaches to resistance training for peri- and post-menopausal women—including tendon care and optimal programming. They debate single-leg training versus heavy bilateral lifts, share knee-friendly lower-body options, and highlight exercises that belong in the "graveyard" due to poor risk-reward ratios. Finally, the group discusses youth sports specialization, emphasizing the long-term value of variety for developing lifelong athletes.
 
We discuss:
 
 • Personal career journeys and philosophies of each guest that shaped their approaches to strength, conditioning, and lifelong health [3:30];
 • Why so few people engage in resistance training despite its proven health benefits [8:30];
 • Mike's low-stress, high-consistency method for training beginners to resistance training [18:45];
 • How resistance training enhances metabolic health and body composition even in lean, highly active endurance athletes [25:30];
 • The dominant role of nutrition in shaping physique and achieving low body fat, the synergistic effect of resistance training, and the unrealistic expectations about muscle growth and fat loss [28:30];
 • Why Jeff advocates for five meals a day, and why meal timing matters less than overall protein intake and caloric consistency [38:00];
 • Optimizing protein for every stage of life: quality, quantity, and guidelines for diverse diets and body types [44:15];
 • The advantages of unilateral lower-body training over heavy bilateral lifts: impact on strength, athleticism, recovery, and functional movement [51:45];
 • Rethinking heavy squats and deadlifts: risk-reward, aging bodies, and the case for reverse lunges and other single-leg alternatives [1:01:15];
 • Adapting with age: Gabrielle on injuries, hip dysplasia, and the shift to smarter training [1:10:15];
 • Exercises that belong in the "iron graveyard": unnecessarily risky exercises and their safer alternatives [1:19:15];
 • The downside of early sports specialization in children and the long-term benefits of encouraging kids to play multiple sports [1:25:00];
 • Advice for preventing an Achilles injury: calf strength, ankle mobility, and listening to pain signals [1:33:15];
 • Shoulder pain: how to keep training the upper body when shoulder pain limits pressing movements [1:40:45];
 • Effective strength training strategies for women before, during, and after the menopausal transition [1:43:15];
 • Best practices for strength training and athletic development in children, and the pitfalls of early sports specialization [1:50:30];
 • How to foster healthy habits and an interest in fitness beyond playing sports [2:00:00];
 • Something each guest has changed their mind about in the last five years [2:04:00]; and
 • More.
 
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#365 ‒ Training for longevity: A roundtable on building strength, preventing injury, meeting protein needs, guidance for women and youth athletes, and more | Gabrielle Lyon, Mike Boyle, Jeff Cavaliere

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In this "Ask Me Anything" (AMA) episode, Peter explores how to determine the right diet for yourself rather than searching for a universal "best" diet. He begins by laying out five non-negotiable criteria that any sustainable eating pattern must meet—energy balance, metabolic health, adequate protein, micronutrient sufficiency, and long-term adherence—before introducing a practical rubric for evaluating different diets. Using this framework, Peter walks through the ketogenic, carnivore, vegan, and Mediterranean diets, highlighting their strengths, ideal candidates for each, and common pitfalls such as micronutrient gaps or adherence challenges. He explains why this guidance is aimed at people who feel overwhelmed by diet choices, not zealots defending a single approach, and provides practical advice on using tools like DEXA scans, lab markers, continuous glucose monitors, and symptom tracking to assess whether a diet is truly working.
 
If you're not a subscriber and are listening on a podcast player, you'll only be able to hear a preview of the AMA. If you're a subscriber, you can now listen to this full episode on your private RSS feed or our website at the AMA #75 show notes page. If you are not a subscriber, you can learn more about the subscriber benefits here.
 
We discuss:
 
 • Peter's family chess battle [3:00];
 • Framing the diet discussion: moving past tribalism to practical frameworks for evaluating various dietary strategies [5:00];
 • Peter's high-level nutrition framework [11:00];
 • Why diet is such a uniquely polarizing subject [14:15];
 • The five non-negotiables that apply to any diet [17:45];
 • How to think about energy balance in the context of evaluating a specific diet [20:15];
 • How diet can address metabolic health [21:45];
 • Protein as a dietary foundation [23:30];
 • Micronutrient essentials: avoiding deficiencies in restrictive and processed diets [24:45];
 • Why adherence and sustainability are essential for diet success [27:15];
 • Examining the standard American diet through the five non-negotiables [31:00];
 • The evaluation framework for specific diets [33:30];
 • The ketogenic diet: defining ketosis, clinical origins, modern uses, and potential health benefits [35:00];
 • The main strengths and weaknesses of the ketogenic diet [43:00];
 • How to avoid micronutrient deficiencies while on a ketogenic diet [47:15];
 • Electrolytes and fiber and the ketogenic diet: preventing magnesium loss and maintaining digestive health [49:15];
 • Adherence challenges of the ketogenic diet [51:30];
 • The carnivore diet: definition, motivations, anecdotal benefits, and possible mechanisms [53:15];
 • The main strengths and weaknesses of the carnivore diet [57:30];
 • Plant exclusion on the carnivore diet: nutrient gaps, gut changes, and unanswered questions [1:03:15];
 • Adherence challenges of the carnivore diet [1:04:45];
 • The vegan diet: definition, core beliefs, and various motivations for this strategy [1:05:45];
 • The main strengths and weaknesses of the vegan diet [1:09:15];
 • Adherence to the vegan diet: social acceptance, edge cases, and personal sustainability [1:13:15];
 • The Mediterranean diet: definitional challenges, traditional patterns, and its relatively strong evidence base [1:15:15];
 • Limitations of the Mediterranean diet: loose definitions and indulgence risks [1:19:30];
 • Measuring diet success: why setting clear goals and tracking outcomes matter [1:21:00];
 • Tracking body composition using DEXA scans [1:22:15];
 • Tracking metabolic health: key blood tests and advanced glucose monitoring tools [1:22:45];
 • Using elimination diets to identify food sensitivities that may cause digestive problems, autoimmune symptoms, or low energy [1:23:30];
 • Evaluating "anti-inflammatory diets": confirming inflammation through symptoms and hs-CRP testing [1:25:15];
 • Final takeaways: flexibility, structure, and avoiding dogma in dietary choices [1:27:00]; and
 • More.
 
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#364 – AMA #75: Diets: how to evaluate and implement any diet including keto, carnivore, vegan, Mediterranean, and more

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Edward Chang is a neurosurgeon, scientist, and a pioneering leader in functional neurosurgery and brain-computer interface technology, whose work spans the operating room, the research lab, and the engineering bench to restore speech and movement for patients who have lost these capabilities. In this episode, Edward explains the evolution of modern neurosurgery and its dramatic reduction in collateral damage, the experience of awake brain surgery, real-time mapping to protect critical functions, and the split-second decisions surgeons make. He also discusses breakthroughs in brain-computer interfaces and functional electrical stimulation systems, strategies for improving outcomes in glioblastoma, and his vision for slimmer, safer implants that could turn devastating conditions like ALS, spinal cord injury, and aggressive brain tumors into more manageable chronic illnesses.
 
We discuss:
 
 • The evolution of neurosurgery and the shift toward minimally invasive techniques [2:30];
 • Glioblastomas: biology, current treatments, and emerging strategies to overcome its challenges [10:45];
 • How brain mapping has advanced from preserving function during surgery to revealing how neurons encode language and cognition [16:30];
 • How awake brain surgery is performed [22:00];
 • How brain redundancy and plasticity allow some regions to be safely resected, the role of the corpus callosum in epilepsy surgery, and the clinical and philosophical implications of disconnecting the hemispheres [26:15];
 • How neural engineering may restore lost functions in neurodegenerative disease, how thought mapping varies across individuals, and how sensory decline contributes to cognitive aging [39:15];
 • Brain–computer interfaces explained: EEG vs. ECoG vs. single-cell electrodes and their trade-offs [48:30];
 • Edward's clinical trial using ECoG to restore speech to a stroke patient [1:01:00];
 • How a stroke patient regained speech through brain–computer interfaces: training, AI decoding, and the path to scalable technology [1:10:45];
 • Using brain-computer interfaces to restore breathing, movement, and broader function in ALS patients [1:28:15];
 • The 2030 outlook for brain–computer interfaces [1:34:00];
 • The potential of stem cell and cell-based therapies for regenerating lost brain function [1:38:00];
 • Edward's vision for how neurosurgery and treatments for glioblastoma, Parkinson's disease, and Alzheimer's disease may evolve by 2040 [1:42:15];
 • The rare but dangerous risk of vertebral artery dissections from chiropractic neck adjustments and high-velocity movements [1:44:45];
 • How Harvey Cushing might view modern neurosurgery, and how the field has shifted from damage avoidance to unlocking the brain's functions [1:46:15]; and
 • More.
 
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#363 ‒ A new frontier in neurosurgery: restoring brain function with brain-computer interfaces, advancing glioblastoma care, and new hope for devastating brain diseases | Edward Chang, M.D.

In this episode, Dr. Rudy Leibel, an expert in Clinical Molecular Genetics and Genomics at Columbia University, discusses his role in the remarkable scientific story of discovering leptin. He also gets into the genetics of obesity, as well as a broader discussion of the causes and effects of obesity, energy expenditure, and metabolism.
 
We discuss:
 
 • Rudy's background, interest in obesity, and trying to understand the role and impact of adipose tissue [4:15];
 • Finding the first evidence of leptin by studying obese mice [23:30];
 • Zucker rats, and the push/pull theories of obesity [34:45];
 • A breakthrough in obesity research, and closing in on leptin [45:45];
 • Understanding leptin in humans [1:03:30];
 • What Prader–Willi syndrome teaches us about body weight regulation [1:09:45];
 • Leptin and the broad condition of obesity, metabolic consequences of weight reduction, and Peter's self-experiments [1:18:00];
 • How is appetite being regulated? [1:29:45];
 • Are there epigenetic consequences of being obese? [1:37:00];
 • What makes low-carb diets so effective at obesity reduction? [1:46:15];
 • What did Rudy believe 10 years ago that he no longer believes to be true? [1:55:15];
 • Rudy's dream study of the FTO gene [1:57:15];
 • What the hell does insulin resistance actually mean? [2:08:30]; and
 • More.
 
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#33 - Rudy Leibel, M.D.: Finding the obesity gene and discovering leptin

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