In addition to being unable to be reinforced or supplied by sea, Napoleon's ambitions to establish a permanent presence in Egypt were further frustrated by a number of uprisings. Early in 1799, Napoleon advanced against France’s erstwhile enemy, the Ottoman Empire, invading modern Syria (then the province of Damascus) and conquering the cities of Gaza, Jaffa, Arish and Haifa. However, with the plague running rampant through his army and his lines of supply from Egypt stretched dangerously thin, Napoleon was unable to destroy the fortified city of Acre and was forced to retreat. The retreat cost him almost all of his wounded as, harassed by enemy forces, he was forced to abandon most of his casualties to the Ottomans’ mercy, or lack thereof. Most of the wounded were tortured and beheaded.

Napoleon harbored all kinds of delusions about his time in Egypt that were not based in reality, but he definitely left a lasting legacy in the region, one he would never live to see or appreciate. By shifting the theater of operations to Africa and the Middle East, Napoleon inadvertently ensured the Europeans would fight there in the future, and the French occupation impressed upon the locals the necessity of catching up to the modern world in terms of technology. Ancient tactics could not prevail against a modern army, no matter the numbers, but while that was a lesson Napoleon consistently taught his enemies in Egypt and the Levant to their detriment, the French also sped up the occupied populations’ technological advances as well. Perhaps more importantly, the Egyptian Scientific Institute introduced numerous modern innovations, perhaps most importantly the printing press, which in turn encouraged literacy. This brought about the emergence of nationalism and liberalism, leading eventually to the establishment of Egyptian independence and modernization under the rule of Muhammad Ali Pasha in the first half of the 19th century.

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